On the Relations between Learning to Spell and Learning to Read

The study of spelling is oddly neglected by
researchers in the cognitive sciences who devote
themselves to reading. Experimentation and
theories concerning printed word recognition
continue to proliferate. Spelling, by contrast, has
received short shrift, at least until fairly recently.
It is apparent that in our preoccupation with
reading, we have tended to downgrade spelling,
passing it by as though it were a low-level skill
learned chiefly by rote. However, a look beneath
the surface at children's spellings quickly
convinces one that the common assumption is
false. The ability to spell is an achievement no less

deserving of well- directed study than the ability
to read. Yet spelling and reading are not quite
opposite sides of a coin. Though each is party to a
common code, the two skills are not identical. In
view of this, it is important to discover how
development of the ability to spell words is phased
with development of skill in reading them, and to
discover how each activity may influence the
other. Thus, this chapter is concerned with the
relationship between reading and writing.
It is appropriate to begin by asking what infor-mation an alphabetic orthography provides for a
writer and reader, and to briefly review the possi-ble reasons why beginners often find it difficult to
understand the principle of alphabetic writing and
to grasp how spellings represent linguistic struc-ture. In this connection, would an orthography
best suited for learning to spell differ from an or-thography best suited for learning to read??????????
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The Relationship between Learning Styles and Cognitive Traits - Getting Additional Information for Improving Student Modelling

Introduction
Student models (for example, see Brusilovsky, 1994) are essential to any adaptive virtual learning
environments. These models contain information about learners such as personal data, domain competence,
learning style and cognitive traits, and use this information to adapt to the learners’ needs. An important task
for such adaptive environments is to build a robust student model in order to be able to provide adaptivity in
an appropriate way, but filling the student model with proper information about the learner is quite
challenging. 
The simplest approach to construct a student model is to ask a student for relevant data. However, this
approach is not suitable for identifying accurate information for a number of components of a student model,
such as cognitive traits, domain competence, and preferred learning styles. For example, the estimation of
domain competence is subjective. To determine cognitive  traits and learning styles, comprehensive tests or
questionnaire-based surveys are the ordinary means used but these are time consuming and hardly definitive.
An alternative approach to collect the information pertinent to a student model is to track the student’s

behaviour and responses and then make inferences  about general domain competence, cognitive traits, and
learning styles. The challenge of this approach is  to identify and collect sufficient information to make
reliable and useful inferences. To support the detection process of required information, it is beneficial to find
mechanisms that use whatever information about the learner is already available to obtain as much reliable
information as possible to build a more robust student model.
The aim of this paper is to demonstrate the relationship between the learning style and the cognitive traits
of a learner. The identified relationship provides additional information which can be used to improve the
detection process of both, the learning style and the cognitive traits, in an adaptive virtual learning
environment.
To exemplify this relationship, we investigate the interaction of working memory capacity, one cognitive
trait included in the Cognitive Trait Model (Lin, Kinshuk, and Patel, 2003), with Felder-Silverman learning
style model (Felder and Silverman, 1988). Both models as well as their possible implementation in adaptive
virtual learning environments are described in the next section in more detail. In Section 3, we present the
mapping between the Felder-Silverman learning style model and working memory capacity. This mapping is

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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEARNING STYLES AND LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES OF PRE-INTERMEDIATE EAP STUDENTS

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Presentation
This chapter presents the background to the study followed by the purpose
and the significance of the study. Next, the research questions are stated and the
limitations to the study are presented along with the definitions of terms.

1.2 Background to the Study
During the last couple of decades the world has been concerned with cultural,
social, political and technological changes. In order to keep up with those changes,
people have had to meet the needs created by all these changes. Language learning is
one  of  the  most  important  needs  and  it  has  become  an  essential  component  in
people’s lives. Because of numerous reasons such as studying at an English medium
university or living in a foreign country, people all over the world are trying to learn
a second, even a third language. 

From the early 1970s on some researchers in the field have been trying to
find out teaching methods, classroom techniques, and instructional materials that will
promote better language instruction. However, in spite of all these efforts there has
been  a  growing  concern  that  learners  have  not  progressed  as  much  as  it  was
  2
anticipated.  Because  there  are  considerable  individual  differences  in  language
learning such as gender, age, social status, motivation, attitude, aptitude, culture, etc.;
what  works  for  one  learner  might  not  work  for  another.  Therefore,  none  of  the
methods and techniques has proved that they can work all the time, in all classes,
with all students. As a result, it might be appropriate to comply with Grenfell and
Harris’  (1999)  statement  that  “Methodology  alone  can  never  be  a  solution  to
language learning. Rather it is an aid and suggestion” (p. 10).
Having reached this conclusion some other people in the field changed the
focus  from  the  language  teaching  methodology  to  the  language  learner  and  the
variables that affect language learning. This shift of the focal point has led to an
increase in the number of studies carried out regarding learner characteristics and
foreign or second language learning. Language Learning Strategies (LLS) have been
one of the most popular aspects researchers have focused on. However, they have not
been investigated on their own. Some other variables that affect them such as gender,
achievement, motivation, career orientation, national origin, aptitude, learning styles,
etc. have also been taken into consideration while doing research in order to reveal
whether there is any relationship between the LLS choice and variables.
Oxford (1989) offers a synthesis of the studies carried out regarding the LLS
and  the  variables  that  affect  strategy  choice.  She  presents  the  results  of  studies
carried out with respects to LLS choice and language being learned, duration, degree
of awareness, age, and sex, affective variables such as attitudes, motivational level,
personality characteristics, and general personality type. Learning styles is another
variable but Oxford asserts that “little research has been?????????????????????  ????????????????????????????????????????????

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A CASE STUDY OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF SEMANTIC MAPPING AS A PRE-TEACHING VOCABULARY ACTIVITY

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1  BACKGROUND

  One of the major problems most Thai students encounter when they read any
texts  is  the  lack  of  vocabulary  knowledge  or  struggling  with  unknown  words.
Therefore,  readers  begin  to  panic  and  stop  reading  to  look  them  up  in  dictionaries
which  interrupts  the  normal  reading  process,  then  destroys  their  chances  to
comprehend much of the text. The relationship between knowledge of word meanings
and  comprehension  has  been  well  documented  by  researchers  and  acknowledged  by
students.  Many  of  them  admit  that  sometimes  they  do  not  understand  what  they  are
reading because the words are too hard for them Biemiller (2001) also pointed out that
what is missing for many children who master phonics but do not comprehend well is

vocabulary,  the  words  they  need  to  know  in  order  to  understand  what  they  are
reading. Thus vocabulary is the “missing link” in reading instruction.
  Hirsch (2003) claimed that students who already know 90-95 percent of words
in a text are allowed to get the main idea of the text and therefore to guess correctly
the  remaining  unfamiliar  words’  meaning.  On  the contrary, those who know only 10
percent  of  words  in  a  text  do  not  comprehend  the  passage;  they  thus  miss  the
opportunity  to  understand  the  text  and  learn  more  words.  Vocabulary  knowledge
increases  when  new  words  are  encountered  repeatedly  in  context  through  reading  or
listening, have a significant link to students’ prior knowledge, and are connected with
other words that are semantically related. 
   In order to gain meaning for new words while reading, it is necessary to use
prior knowledge making predictions about meaning and gradually refine that meaning
(Blachowicz and Fisher, 1996). An important part of teaching background knowledge
is  teaching  the  vocabulary  related  to  it;  on  the  other  hand,  learning  vocabulary  also
means  learning  the  conceptual  knowledge  associated  with  the  word.  Comprehension
is  facilitated  when  vocabulary  is  taught  in  depth  before  reading  begins  and  while
reading.  To  be  more  effective,  an  extensive  and  vocabulary  development  program
accompanying a schemata development program is called for. Instead of pre teaching???  ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

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Examining the Relationship Between Learning Organization Characteristics and Change Adaptation, Innovation, and Organizational Performance

The main purpose of this exploratory study was to examine the relationship
between certain learning organization characteristics and change adaptation,
innovation, and bottom-line organizational performance. The following learn-ing organization characteristics were found to be the strongest predictors of
rapid change adaptation, quick product or service introduction, and bottom-line  organizational  performance:  open  communications  and  information
sharing; risk taking and new idea promotion; and information, facts, time, and
resource availability to perform one’s job in a professional manner.
Organizational leaders and theorists increasingly view learning as a key ele-ment in developing and maintaining competitive advantage (Armstrong &

Foley, 2003; Baldwin, Danielson, & Wiggenhorn, 1997; DeGeus, 1988;
Goh & Richards, 1997; Liedtka, 1996; Nonaka, 1991; Porth, McCall, &
Bausch, 1999; Schein, 1993; Senge, 1990a; Slater & Narver, 1995; Stata,
1989). Although organizational learning has been studied for decades
(Argyris & Schön, 1978, 1996), a new emphasis on learning has arisen due
to rapid changes in the business climate, including uncertain market condi-tions, increasing complexity, changing demographics, and global competition
(Altman & Iles, 1998; Peters, 1987; Probst & Buchel, 1997; Swain, 1999).
The view that learning increases competitive advantage has stimulated inter-est in developing organizations that foster and promote learning. Learning
organizations are designed to increase competitiveness through generative
learning that is forward looking and reduces the major shocks of change,
through close relationships with customers and other key constituents that
allow for mutual adjustment, and through the ability to quickly reconfigure
and reallocate resources based on environmental change (Slater & Narver,
1995).
Recently, there has been a call to redefine the role of human resources in
ways that increase its strategic impact on organizational competitiveness and
success (Griego, Geroy, & Wright, 2000; Ulrich, 1997a, 1997b, 1999). Human
resource development (HRD) professionals are being asked to take a leader-ship role in transforming organizations in ways that foster and promote learn-ing. Creating a learning company requires an understanding of the learning
organization concept and its relationship to desired organizational outcomes

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kwell Publishing Ltd The relationship between the quality of cooperative learning, students’ goal preferences, and perceptions of contextual factors in the classroom

This paper reports a study into the relationship between
motivational processes, contextual factors and the quality of
cooperative learning (CL) processes of  adolescent students
in secondary vocational education in the Netherlands. We
view motivational processes as an intricate part of  the students’
self-regulation process, namely that part that is steered by
their values and goal preferences. It is generally assumed that
students steer their behavior in the direction of  valued goals and
away from non-valued goals (Boekaerts, Pintrich & Zeidner,
2000). This is not to say that students are working with a clear
goal dichotomy in mind; personally valued and non-valued
goals. Rather, our position is that many goals are located in

between these two extremes. Indeed, students are presented
with multiple goals in the school context. Some students
might classify these goals in terms of  desirable and undesir-able ones but for the majority of  students the classification
process might be more complex. Several researchers, such as
Deci and Ryan (1985) and Ryan and Deci (2000) argued that
most students will determine to what extent school goals are
similar to – or might be combined with – personally liked
goals; they try to bridge the span between imposed and
personal goals, by “personalizing” the former type of  goals
(e.g., Lemos, 2002). We  assume that students’ motivation
levels at school largely depend on their perceptions of  the
connection between their personal goals and the school goals.
We  expect that the students’ perception of  the quality of
CL depends to a large extent on the goal preferences that
they bring into the classroom. On the other hand we expect
that their perception of  the classroom context itself, and
more specifically the way they perceive teacher behavior and
the support they get from teacher and peers, determines the
quality of  CL as well. For example, we expect that the stu-dents’ perceptions of  the extent to which they were taught
cooperation skills (How information) and the social reasons
they consider important for CL (Why information) will
affect how they appraise the quality of  CL. For future inter-vention purposes, attention to how students perceive the CL
setting is of  prime importance. Our position is that, although
students’ goal preferences have a large impact on their per-ception of  the quality of  CL, it is difficult to influence their
goal preferences in a short period of  time. By contrast, infor-mation about the contextual factors that influence students’
perception of  CL may provide researchers with useful infor-mation to hand down to teachers and trainers. We realize
that adaptations to classroom settings are much easier to
generate than changes in students’ goal preferences.
In this paper, we attempt to expand the focus of  goal
preferences from the achievement domain to the social
domain, acknowledging the large role played by students’
perception of  the social context. The article is organized into
three main sections. First, we describe the quality of  CL as
the general beliefs students have about the reasons for learn-ing with and from each other and their awareness of  how
they have to go about learning in the CL setting. Second, we
describe the relation between goal preferences and CL. In
the third section we describe how goal preferences and per-ception of  contextual factors is conceptualized in the present
study and report on the results

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the students creativity and it is relation in learning achievement

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

  This theoretical review consists of the presentation of two topics. The first
topic discusses the students’ learning achievement comprising the definitions of
learning, learning achievement, factors  affecting learning achievement, and
measurement of learning achievement. The second topic is concerned about the
students’ creativity including the definitions of creativity, the characteristics of a
creative person, and measurement of creativity.
2.1 Students’ Learning Achievement
2.1.1 Definitions of Learning
The word ‘learning’ has some definitions. In the Encyclopedia of
Educational Research, learning is defined as a process of gaining new knowledge
or skill. In order to qualify as learning rather than just temporary gain, this process
must include retention of  knowledge or skill so that  it can be displayed at the

future (1985: 2975). 
Chance (1985: 17) states that learning as a relatively stable and
unspecified change with an organism that makes a change in behavior that is due
to experience and that can not be accounted for in terms of reflexes, instincts, or
the influence of fatigue, injury, disease, or drug. This definition implies that
learning refers to the changing of human  being which is due to experience or
planning, not due to natural growth.
 Another experts, Bigge and Shermish (1992: 1) state that learning is basic
to development of athletic prowess, of tastes in food and dress and of the
appreciation of art and music. It contributes to ethnic prejudice, to drug addiction,
to fear, and to pathological maladjustment. It produces the miser and the
philanthropist, the bigot and????????????????????????????????????????

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THE STUDENTS' MOOD AND IT IS REALITION WITH LEARNING ACHIEVEMENT

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A.      Background of the Study

English is an important language. It becomes the international communication language. In Indonesia, English is the first foreign language. Because English is an important position, it is taught from the fourth grade of elementary school in some schools as an alternative subject and from the first grade of junior high school (SMP) up to third grade of senior high school (SMA) as one of the compulsory subjects. The students of SMP and SMA are hoped to have enough competence in English because it becomes a subject tested in UAN (Ujian Akhir Nasional). The result of UAN has been satisfactory. This is supported by the fact that

UAN English score of SMP and SMA are successful. According to Bambang as quoted from http://www.depdiknas.go.id (2006) explains that average score of UAN in English is 7.54. It is higher than UAN standard which is 4.5. It means that the score is satisfactory, but improvement is still needed to achieve the best result. 

In order to reach the goal above, many experts of education try to reveal the problems of English learning. To overcome the problems, they try to carry out different attempts to improve English teaching learning processes. The curriculum, approach, method, and technique of English teaching are always revised and improved in order to meet the goals of the teaching learning process.

Sofiah (1998: 5) states that the success of the English teaching learning processes at schools depends on the teachers for they are key figures in the   classroom. It is considered that if the teachers do not have good competence in the teaching learning process, the students will not achieve the objectives. In addition, Sofiah states that the source of the problems is not the teacher, but also the institution related to education. It is  assumed that this institution is also responsible to the results of teaching learning processes since its output is related to the results of teaching learning processes.

Citrawati (2002: 8) states that there is another factor that may influence the students' achievement: students' factor. The students as subjects in the learning process have different characteristics. Each student differs in intelligence, sex, socioeconomic background, motivation, attitude, and learning strategies. 

Based on this view, the writer is interested in knowing what factors that actually influence in learning English. This time, the focus of the study is on students’ creativity. Creativity can be defined as thinking ability in managing a problem referring to his experiences or///////////????????????????????????

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